Friday, November 23, 2018
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS IN THE BRAIN CELLS: AN EXPOSÉ
A needful interaction occurs between two different species of reactive molecules know as free radicals and antioxidants in the blood and body fluid. The free radicals are destructive while the antioxidants are both protective and restorative.
The free radicals such as hydrogen ions are charged molecules released as a result of certain metabolic processes in various cells of the body, most importantly, the brain. These free radicals in the body 'fly' around like unguided missiles seeking to interact with other compatible reactive species to get neutralized. In the absence of antioxidants, the option left for them is the cell walls of the body cells. This kind of reaction is destructive as it collapses the cell walls (cytoskeleton) by reacting with the phospholipid bilayer of the cell walls, causing the untimely ageing of the cells - brain cells are the worst hit. This process is directly linked to some of the very common brain diseases such as dementia, Alzheimer's disease, amnesia, stroke and so on.
Antioxidants are substances in the blood and body fluid that have high affinity for the highly charged free radicals, which help in mopping them up very fast by reacting with them to form neutral (harmless) species that can be easily removed from the internal body environment through excretion (eg through urine). By implication antioxidants are antidotes to free radical,and, hence, protect the body cells especially the neurons from damage caused by free radicals, or, even restores a diseased brain to a normal condition - a common achievement in the USA and Israel.
The interaction between antioxidants and free radicals can be demonstrated thus:
Antioxidant + Free radicals = Neutral (harmless) substance
Antioxidants obtained from foods. Therefore, adjusting your diet toward high amounts of antioxidants wouldn't be bad idea.
What gets the body ( particularly the brain) exposed to free radicals?
What are the sure sources of antioxidants?
Check them out in subsequent posts.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med.
Thursday, November 22, 2018
SHARP MEMORY: A TRUE TEST OF CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE AND BRAIN HEALTH
Brain function has been better understood owing to the recent advancements in technology resulting in the development of some cutting-edge techniques such as Proton Emission Tomography (PET) scanning, functional Magnetic Resonance Imagery (fMRI) and so on, used in studying and understanding more deeply, the activity of a completely actibe human brain. These techniques have been used in studying both simple and complex responses of the brain including learning, emotions, thoughts, memory and so on.
Memory
Memory is the retention and storage of in formation acquired through learning.
Memory could be better explained and understood in real terms physiologically than psychologically. Memory is, therefore, of two forms:
- Explicit memory
- Implicit memory
Explicit (declarative or recognition) memory is the form of memory associated with conciousness or awareness. It is dependent on the hippocampus and other parts of the medial temporal lobes of the brain for its retention. This form of memory is further subsumed under to two categories:
- Memory for events known as episodic memory.
- Memory for, words , rules, language, and so on knowns as semantic memory.
Implicit (non declarative or reflexive) memory is a form of memory which it's retention does not involve processing in the hippocampus. In most instances, this includes skills, habits and conditioned reflex. Explicit memory initially acquired from activities such as learning to type become implicit once the task is thoroughly learnt. Implicit memory is subsumed under:
- Long-term memory
- Short-term memory
Long-term memory stores memories for years, and, sometimes, for life. This form of memory is resistant to any kind of physical or chemical disruptions.
Short-term memory is a form of implicit memory that last seconds to hours during which processing in the hippocampus and elsewhere lays down long-term changes in the strength of connection of the neurons. During this period or process, the traces of this memory may be disrupted by trauma or various drugs or other chemical substances. This form of memory has another special subcategory known as working memory
Working memory is a special form of short-term memory needed by the brain to hold an information or available data for a very short time while waiting for an action on it this form of memory is used mainly in active duty such as driving. It is an important yardstick for measuring intelligence quotient of an individual.
Sharp memory is really a true test of brain health and crystallized intelligence. It could be seriously inhibited be poor diet, poor use of the brain, which could cause disease conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, amnesia, psychosis and so on.
How sharp is your memory?
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Memory could be better explained and understood in real terms physiologically than psychologically. Memory is, therefore, of two forms:
- Explicit memory
- Implicit memory
Explicit (declarative or recognition) memory is the form of memory associated with conciousness or awareness. It is dependent on the hippocampus and other parts of the medial temporal lobes of the brain for its retention. This form of memory is further subsumed under to two categories:
- Memory for events known as episodic memory.
- Memory for, words , rules, language, and so on knowns as semantic memory.
Implicit (non declarative or reflexive) memory is a form of memory which it's retention does not involve processing in the hippocampus. In most instances, this includes skills, habits and conditioned reflex. Explicit memory initially acquired from activities such as learning to type become implicit once the task is thoroughly learnt. Implicit memory is subsumed under:
- Long-term memory
- Short-term memory
Long-term memory stores memories for years, and, sometimes, for life. This form of memory is resistant to any kind of physical or chemical disruptions.
Short-term memory is a form of implicit memory that last seconds to hours during which processing in the hippocampus and elsewhere lays down long-term changes in the strength of connection of the neurons. During this period or process, the traces of this memory may be disrupted by trauma or various drugs or other chemical substances. This form of memory has another special subcategory known as working memory
Working memory is a special form of short-term memory needed by the brain to hold an information or available data for a very short time while waiting for an action on it this form of memory is used mainly in active duty such as driving. It is an important yardstick for measuring intelligence quotient of an individual.
Sharp memory is really a true test of brain health and crystallized intelligence. It could be seriously inhibited be poor diet, poor use of the brain, which could cause disease conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, amnesia, psychosis and so on.
How sharp is your memory?
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Monday, November 19, 2018
LEARNING
Knowledge is power. Information is liberating. Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family - Kofi Annan.
The brain at every point in time is supplied with a lot of information through various channels including:
1. Thoughts coming from the association areas of the brain's neocortex.
2. Special sense organs:
- The eye (vision)
- The ear (hearing)
- The nose (smelling)
- The skin (feeling)
- The tongue (tasting)
Learning
Learning is the is acquisition of the information that makes the alteration of behavior possible. It is one of the highest and most complex functions of the nervous system of humans. The process of learning is always preceded by stimulation, which, most of the time, comes from the external body environment through the five special senses mentioned above.
Psychologically, there are three different levels of learning that occur at the three different levels of the human mind including:
Subconscious learning
This level of learning is involuntary and takes place unknowingly. This, sometimes, depends on what has been fed to the mind from the external environment such as languagTe. This level of learning happens without the effort of the learner.
Concious Learning
This is the level of learning that occur as a result of the effort of the learner at acquiring the knowledge of a particular subject for immediate or future use.
Superconcious Learning
This level of learning is achieved through the extraordinary effort of the learher at learning a particular subject by immersing his whole thought in the subject (transcendental meditation), which, depends on what has already been fed to the concious mind from the external environment through the five special senses and thoughts. This, most of the time, involves the repetition of a phrase as in yoga or some religious spiritual exercises such as catholics saying the rosary.
Physiologically, learning of any kind has a specific area in the brain where it takes place such as language center for learning laguages, speech center for speech, motor area for movement, sensory area for feeling sensations and so on.
There two forms of learning:
- Associative and
- Non associative learning
Associative learning is learning about a single stimulus.
Non associative learning is learning about the connection of one stimulus to another - the Pavlov dog.
Learning is a pivotal process in the life of every human person. It refines behavior and adds value.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
The brain at every point in time is supplied with a lot of information through various channels including:
1. Thoughts coming from the association areas of the brain's neocortex.
2. Special sense organs:
- The eye (vision)
- The ear (hearing)
- The nose (smelling)
- The skin (feeling)
- The tongue (tasting)
Learning
Learning is the is acquisition of the information that makes the alteration of behavior possible. It is one of the highest and most complex functions of the nervous system of humans. The process of learning is always preceded by stimulation, which, most of the time, comes from the external body environment through the five special senses mentioned above.
Psychologically, there are three different levels of learning that occur at the three different levels of the human mind including:
Subconscious learning
This level of learning is involuntary and takes place unknowingly. This, sometimes, depends on what has been fed to the mind from the external environment such as languagTe. This level of learning happens without the effort of the learner.
Concious Learning
This is the level of learning that occur as a result of the effort of the learner at acquiring the knowledge of a particular subject for immediate or future use.
Superconcious Learning
This level of learning is achieved through the extraordinary effort of the learher at learning a particular subject by immersing his whole thought in the subject (transcendental meditation), which, depends on what has already been fed to the concious mind from the external environment through the five special senses and thoughts. This, most of the time, involves the repetition of a phrase as in yoga or some religious spiritual exercises such as catholics saying the rosary.
Physiologically, learning of any kind has a specific area in the brain where it takes place such as language center for learning laguages, speech center for speech, motor area for movement, sensory area for feeling sensations and so on.
There two forms of learning:
- Associative and
- Non associative learning
Associative learning is learning about a single stimulus.
Non associative learning is learning about the connection of one stimulus to another - the Pavlov dog.
Learning is a pivotal process in the life of every human person. It refines behavior and adds value.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Sunday, November 18, 2018
THE FORCE BEHIND LEARNING AND RETENTIVE MEMORY: ACETYLCHOLINE
Acetylcholine
Both learning and memory are facilitated by acetylcholine in the brain. Though, it is the transmitting chemical at the meeting point of the somatic nerve fibers and skeletal muscle fibers, where it mediates muscle contractions, it is also found in the brain, where it serves the very important functions of mediating learning and memory in the cerebral cortex.
The levels of this substance in the brain depends largely on diet. Subsequent posts will reveal the appropriate diet for adequate acetylcholine supply in the brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Both learning and memory are facilitated by acetylcholine in the brain. Though, it is the transmitting chemical at the meeting point of the somatic nerve fibers and skeletal muscle fibers, where it mediates muscle contractions, it is also found in the brain, where it serves the very important functions of mediating learning and memory in the cerebral cortex.
The levels of this substance in the brain depends largely on diet. Subsequent posts will reveal the appropriate diet for adequate acetylcholine supply in the brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Saturday, November 17, 2018
THE FUEL THAT POWERS YOUR FLUID INTELLIGENCE: NOR-EPINEPHRINE
Nor-epinephrine is associated with thought, mental energy and attention (alertness), which enhance learning. It is known as nor-adrenaline in the UK.
It is popular for its involvement in fright, fight and flight (fff) responses to sudden attacks. Nor-epinephrine helps one to perform extraordinarily in the face of difficulties.
Nor-adrenaline is believed to fuel fluid intelligence.
Both static and dynamic physical exercises drive its copious release in the brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med Sci. Physiology
It is popular for its involvement in fright, fight and flight (fff) responses to sudden attacks. Nor-epinephrine helps one to perform extraordinarily in the face of difficulties.
Nor-adrenaline is believed to fuel fluid intelligence.
Both static and dynamic physical exercises drive its copious release in the brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med Sci. Physiology
Thursday, November 15, 2018
THE PAIN ANTIDOTES: ENDORPHINS
Endorphins
There are about 20 different kinds of endorphins found in the brain. They function as both neurotransmitters and hormones. They are needed for endurance and relaxation (Guyton and Hall., 2015), and, hence, needful for long spans of mental and physical work. And to block physical
Classification of Endorphins
Endorphins can be classified as:
- alpha endorphins
- beta endorphins
- gamma endorphins
- delta endorphins
Each of these four classes of endorphins has an average of four members. These members differ in the number and/or type of amino acids that make them up.
Endorphins are produced mainly in the Brain, brain stem, spinal cord and the pituitary gland. Some also believe that it is produced in order parts of the body including the skeletal muscles.
The most powerful endorphins are beta endorphins.
The main difference between endorphins and analgesic drugs is that endorphins are removed very fast from the plasma after release.
There are about five different types of endorphins in each of their four classes (alpha, beta, gamma and delta endorphins) making about 20 different types of endorphins yet discovered. Some like the met-enkephalins and leu-enkephalins differ by types or number of amino acids in their chains (molecules).
Endorphins as Pain Antidotes
Endorphins are antidotes to physical, emotional/psychological pain. They inhibit physical pain by stoping nociceptors from relaying pain signals to the central nervous system when they bind with opoid receptors to produce analgesic effects.
They relief emotional/psychological pain by producing excitatory effects in the neurons of the brains circuits possibly in the Papez circuit of the thalamus.
Sexual Functions of Endorphins
Endorphins have also been found to influence the release of sex hormones by possibly acting on the anterior pituitary gland to release the sex hormone releasing hormone (GnRH), which acts in turn acts on the gonads to cause the release of follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) and leutenizing hormone (LH) for the generation of sex cells and hormones.
Endorphins Release
Studies have long shown that exercise hike the release of endorphins. Laughter, sex and some foods such as chocolate and chilly pepper have also been linked to hike in plasma endorphins levels.
Worthy of note is that the old believe that the euphoric mood after exercise is caused by plasma endorphins hike has been debunked by the discovery of anandamide in the brain after exercise. Anandamide produces a cannabinoid effect (mood elevation) after exercise.
However, one is advised to subscribe to whatever boosts the availability to nervous system of these pain antidotes, endorphins.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
There are about 20 different kinds of endorphins found in the brain. They function as both neurotransmitters and hormones. They are needed for endurance and relaxation (Guyton and Hall., 2015), and, hence, needful for long spans of mental and physical work. And to block physical
Classification of Endorphins
Endorphins can be classified as:
- alpha endorphins
- beta endorphins
- gamma endorphins
- delta endorphins
Each of these four classes of endorphins has an average of four members. These members differ in the number and/or type of amino acids that make them up.
Endorphins are produced mainly in the Brain, brain stem, spinal cord and the pituitary gland. Some also believe that it is produced in order parts of the body including the skeletal muscles.
The most powerful endorphins are beta endorphins.
The main difference between endorphins and analgesic drugs is that endorphins are removed very fast from the plasma after release.
There are about five different types of endorphins in each of their four classes (alpha, beta, gamma and delta endorphins) making about 20 different types of endorphins yet discovered. Some like the met-enkephalins and leu-enkephalins differ by types or number of amino acids in their chains (molecules).
Endorphins as Pain Antidotes
Endorphins are antidotes to physical, emotional/psychological pain. They inhibit physical pain by stoping nociceptors from relaying pain signals to the central nervous system when they bind with opoid receptors to produce analgesic effects.
They relief emotional/psychological pain by producing excitatory effects in the neurons of the brains circuits possibly in the Papez circuit of the thalamus.
Sexual Functions of Endorphins
Endorphins have also been found to influence the release of sex hormones by possibly acting on the anterior pituitary gland to release the sex hormone releasing hormone (GnRH), which acts in turn acts on the gonads to cause the release of follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) and leutenizing hormone (LH) for the generation of sex cells and hormones.
Endorphins Release
Studies have long shown that exercise hike the release of endorphins. Laughter, sex and some foods such as chocolate and chilly pepper have also been linked to hike in plasma endorphins levels.
Worthy of note is that the old believe that the euphoric mood after exercise is caused by plasma endorphins hike has been debunked by the discovery of anandamide in the brain after exercise. Anandamide produces a cannabinoid effect (mood elevation) after exercise.
However, one is advised to subscribe to whatever boosts the availability to nervous system of these pain antidotes, endorphins.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Tuesday, November 13, 2018
THE MOOD ELEVATOR: DOPAMINE
Dopamine
The neurochemical, dopamine is produced in the neurons of the brain from a precursor known as L-Dopa. It is a contraction of 3,4 dohydroxyphenethylamine.
Dopamine has been nicknamed feel-good neurotransmitter owing to its mood-elevating effect on human behavior. Its presence in the brain is associated with rewarding mood, feeling arousal for sex, eating, pleasure, and even creative thinking. It is also involved in motor control and release of various hormones (neuromodulation). It is also synthesized in plants and most animals, aside from humans. It is a molecule in the family of catecholamines. It consists of a catechol and benzene ring with two hydroxyl side groups with one of the amine groups attached through an ethyl chain. It is the smallest known catecholamine compared to others such as norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Dopamine is usually released in anticipation of rewards. But its presence in the synaptic gaps is very transient, owing to its immediate inactivation by an enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), and reuptake into the neurons.
Low levels of dopamine in the brain results in depression, while so much of it leads to dependence on stimulants (or narcotics) such as cocaine. This phenomenon stems from the endocytosis (swallowing) of the dopaminergic receptors by the brain cells (neurons) to balance the effect of the presence of high levels of it (dopamine) in the brain.
The enzyme MAO discovered by Bernheim in 1928 belongs to the family of proteins known as flavin-containing amine oxidoreductase. They are important important in breaking down monoamines ingested in food and inactivating monoamine neurotransmitters in synaptic gaps. Because of the involvement of MAOs in the breakdown (inactivation) of dopamine and other monoamines, they are implicated in a number of psychiatric and neurological diseases, a number of which can be treated with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) that block the action of MAOs.
Because of the shortness of the time of action of dopamine in the synaptic gaps controlled by an autoregulatory mechanism, some addictive drugs have been designed to, either increase its release or slow down the reuptake from the synaptic gaps after release to prolong the mood elevation normally produced by dopamine. But, regrettably, this leads to the vicious cycle of dependence on drugs as the dopamine receptors on the neurons are swallowed by the neurons to compensate for the high concentrations.
Natural ways of raising dopamine levels in the brain include:
- Exercise
- Meditation
- Going on dopamine-boosting
diets
- Playing some interesting games
and so on.
A brain with adequate dopamine supply is a powerful brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med Sci. Physiology
The neurochemical, dopamine is produced in the neurons of the brain from a precursor known as L-Dopa. It is a contraction of 3,4 dohydroxyphenethylamine.
Dopamine has been nicknamed feel-good neurotransmitter owing to its mood-elevating effect on human behavior. Its presence in the brain is associated with rewarding mood, feeling arousal for sex, eating, pleasure, and even creative thinking. It is also involved in motor control and release of various hormones (neuromodulation). It is also synthesized in plants and most animals, aside from humans. It is a molecule in the family of catecholamines. It consists of a catechol and benzene ring with two hydroxyl side groups with one of the amine groups attached through an ethyl chain. It is the smallest known catecholamine compared to others such as norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Dopamine is usually released in anticipation of rewards. But its presence in the synaptic gaps is very transient, owing to its immediate inactivation by an enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), and reuptake into the neurons.
Low levels of dopamine in the brain results in depression, while so much of it leads to dependence on stimulants (or narcotics) such as cocaine. This phenomenon stems from the endocytosis (swallowing) of the dopaminergic receptors by the brain cells (neurons) to balance the effect of the presence of high levels of it (dopamine) in the brain.
The enzyme MAO discovered by Bernheim in 1928 belongs to the family of proteins known as flavin-containing amine oxidoreductase. They are important important in breaking down monoamines ingested in food and inactivating monoamine neurotransmitters in synaptic gaps. Because of the involvement of MAOs in the breakdown (inactivation) of dopamine and other monoamines, they are implicated in a number of psychiatric and neurological diseases, a number of which can be treated with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) that block the action of MAOs.
Because of the shortness of the time of action of dopamine in the synaptic gaps controlled by an autoregulatory mechanism, some addictive drugs have been designed to, either increase its release or slow down the reuptake from the synaptic gaps after release to prolong the mood elevation normally produced by dopamine. But, regrettably, this leads to the vicious cycle of dependence on drugs as the dopamine receptors on the neurons are swallowed by the neurons to compensate for the high concentrations.
Natural ways of raising dopamine levels in the brain include:
- Exercise
- Meditation
- Going on dopamine-boosting
diets
- Playing some interesting games
and so on.
A brain with adequate dopamine supply is a powerful brain.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med Sci. Physiology
Monday, November 12, 2018
THE ANTIDEPRESSANT: SEROTONIN
Serotonin also called 5-hydroxytryptamine is the molecule (neurotransmitter) in the brain that enhances serenity and hopefulness. It is found mainly in the midbrain and hypothalamus. It is formed from the amino acid tryptophan, which is an essential amino acid as it is got only through diets. Low tryptophan is associated to serotonin deficiency. Serotonin is associated with sleep and relaxation. Low levels of it in the brain results in depression.
Aside from newly generated drugs known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI) that trigger the release of this substance, the presence of high levels of sugar in the brain triggers the release of tryptophan, which, in turn, elicits its release too.
Meditation trigger serotonin release which may cause sleep and enhance relaxation.
Exposure to sunlight (light therapy) also raises serotonin levels in the body.
Regular exercise also enhances serotonin release in the brain.
Some foods like eggs, avocados, pineapples and so many others boost serotonin levels in the brain.
Normal ranges of serotonin in the blood is 101 - 283 nanograms per millimeter (ng/ ML).
Festus C. Anaba, B Med.
Aside from newly generated drugs known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI) that trigger the release of this substance, the presence of high levels of sugar in the brain triggers the release of tryptophan, which, in turn, elicits its release too.
Meditation trigger serotonin release which may cause sleep and enhance relaxation.
Exposure to sunlight (light therapy) also raises serotonin levels in the body.
Regular exercise also enhances serotonin release in the brain.
Some foods like eggs, avocados, pineapples and so many others boost serotonin levels in the brain.
Normal ranges of serotonin in the blood is 101 - 283 nanograms per millimeter (ng/ ML).
Festus C. Anaba, B Med.
Monday, November 5, 2018
THE ACCELERATOR AND BRAKES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR: GLUTAMATE AND GABA
Glutamate and GABA
Glutamate and Gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are two different neurotransmitters, which are mutually related, in terms of their functions in the brain. Glutamate is to the brain what throttle is to a car, while GABA is to the brain what the brake is to the car. Glutamate facilitates learning and memory, but in very high amounts, it can lead to agitation, impulsive behavior and even violence. But GABA is always their as its faithful companion to act as the brakes when the brain is about to speed excessively by facilitating the reduction of glutamate levels. Therefore, GABA, by implications tranquilizes the brain by reducing too much nerve activity.
There is no doubt that human behavior is molecular in origin.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
Glutamate and Gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are two different neurotransmitters, which are mutually related, in terms of their functions in the brain. Glutamate is to the brain what throttle is to a car, while GABA is to the brain what the brake is to the car. Glutamate facilitates learning and memory, but in very high amounts, it can lead to agitation, impulsive behavior and even violence. But GABA is always their as its faithful companion to act as the brakes when the brain is about to speed excessively by facilitating the reduction of glutamate levels. Therefore, GABA, by implications tranquilizes the brain by reducing too much nerve activity.
There is no doubt that human behavior is molecular in origin.
Festus C. Anaba, B Med. Sci. Physiology
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